Ancient Egypt – The First Intermediate Period

DW | Ancient Egypt

10 – The First Intermediate Period

Ancient Egypt - The First Intermediate Period

Welcome to the DW World History Series. In the last episode, we discussed the 5th Dynasty and revealed the causes for the Old Kingdom decline. We continue this decline with the 6th Dynasty which eventually takes Egypt into a dark age.

10.1 – Pharaoh Teti (2345-2333 BC)

During King Teti's reign, from 2345 to 2333 BC, he traded with Byblos and Nubia and continued to build at Saqqara. It is unknown if trade expanded during the 6th Dynasty or if they just left better preserved records than the previous rulers. What is known is that the mastabas of the nobility began to rival the pharaoh's pyramids.

A good example is the 32-room mastaba of Teti's vizier and son-in-law, Mereruka. This is the largest mastaba tomb in Saqqara which contains excellent wall reliefs of daily life. He even has the previously discussed hippopotamus hunt, which is the highlight of the artwork. This apparent increase in nobility wealth will eventually spark the total collapse of the Old Kingdom.

Excavations of Teti's Pyramid complex have revealed a satellite pyramid, two pyramids of queens accompanied by cult structures, and a funerary temple. The orientation of the pyramid is not aligned with the four cardinal points. However, the proportions and plan of the pyramid follow exactly the same pattern as that of the Pyramid of Djedkare. Teti’s Pyramid had a height of about 172 feet, but now all that remains is mostly rubble.

Like other pyramids of the time, it consisted of a step pyramid style core faced with white limestone that gave it the appearance of a smooth-sided pyramid. Also, like many pyramids of the time, the facing stones were plundered, leaving the core to break down due to exposure. Like that of Pharaoh Unas, the walls of the antechamber and burial chamber were inscribed with Pyramid Texts. The vaulted ceiling was also a painted canopy of stars. The basalt sarcophagus was left intact, and there were fragments of what may have been his mummy recovered inside. The pyramid was opened by Gaston Maspero in 1882.

Little remains of Teti’s mortuary temple, although there is enough to tell that there were a few differences from that of Unas, whose designs he otherwise closely followed. For one, Teti favored the plain square pillars common to pyramid complexes dating from the Fourth Dynasty, rather than the more modern round pillars. He also changed the approach of the causeway to the mortuary temple so that rather than lining up with the center of the eastern wall of the pyramid, it angled away from the south-east. In another apparent nod to the traditions of the Fourth Dynasty, Teti had queens’ pyramids built for his wives within his pyramid complex. A valley temple, now lost, was probably destroyed in antiquity due to an Anubis Temple constructed at the location later in the Old Kingdom.

Manetho records that Teti is murdered by his bodyguard. The throne passes to a shadowy figure named Userkare, who ruled Egypt as the second Pharaoh of the 6th Dynasty for 1 to 5 years. Userkare's relation to his predecessor Teti and successor Pepi I is unknown and his reign remains puzzling. He may have been a legitimate short-lived ruler or a regent who ruled during Teti's son Pepi I's childhood before his accession to the throne.

The tomb of Userkare has not yet been identified, either because it was never finished or because Pepi I erased traces of his predecessor's rule. If the tomb was indeed started, Egyptologists assume that it should be located in South Saqqara.

Teti's son, Pepi I, comes to the throne at a very young age and will rule for about 50 years.

10.2 – Pharaoh Pepi I (2332-2283 BC)

Pepi I, who ruled for over 40 years at the turn of the 24th and 23rd centuries BC, began an aggressive expansion into Nubia, and he continued trade to far-flung areas such as Lebanon and the Somalian coast. The decline of the Old Kingdom arguably began with the reign of Pepi I, as nomarchs became more powerful and exerted more authority.

The Pyramid of Pepi I, at South Saqqara, is badly damaged and the burial chamber has collapsed. His pyramid had a height of about 172 feet. This pyramid's substructure was very similar to that of Teti's pyramid. This pyramid was entered by a covered entrance chapel which was located at ground-level in the center of the north side of the pyramid. From there, a descending passage climbed down into the rock to a horizontal corridor chamber.

A horizontal passage, once blocked by three portcullis slabs, continued toward the antechamber, to the west of which was located the king's burial chamber. In this burial chamber, a pink granite canopic chest was found, sunk into the floor in front of the sarcophagus. The sarcophagus itself was found empty. It was made of a hard, dark stone and inscribed with a line from the Pyramid Texts. The burial chamber ceiling had white stars painted on a black background. To the east of the antechamber was located a small chamber with three niches or magazines. Pyramid texts covered the walls of the antechamber, burial chamber, and corridors.

Pepi's mortuary complex, Mennefer Pepy, eventually became the name for the entire city of Memphis after the 18th Dynasty. Like his pyramid, Pepi I’s badly damaged mortuary temple was built according to a standardized ground-plan. After the entrance, a transverse corridor led to magazines and to a long entrance hall. The entrance hall opened onto a columned open court, to the west of which was the inner temple.

The inner temple had a transverse hall, followed by five statue niches. To the south of these niches, a doorway led to a chamber that gave access to an antechamber with one single column. The antechamber led to the sanctuary. Several limestone statues of bound and beheaded enemies were found in this temple. The causeway itself, like the valley temple, has never been cleared. The satellite pyramid was located at its traditional place, to the south-east of the main pyramid. There are five or possibly even six smaller pyramids that once belonged to Pepi I's Queens.

The cult for Pepi I continued well into the Middle Kingdom. An inscription left behind by Khaemwaset, the illustrious son of the even more famous Ramesses II, described how, by his time, this complex had suffered and decayed.

A large copper statue of Pepi I and his son, Merenre, were discovered at Hierakonpolis, the same location as the Narmer Palette. This is the earliest known life size sculpture in copper. The king lacks a crown and a midriff where his kilt would have been. This was probably made of a softer material, most likely gilded plaster. Another great statue was discovered with Pepi I kneeling while offering wine to a god. This green slate statue is beautifully crafted and is the earliest example of the genre of statuary that was to become extremely popular, even into the Late Period.

Pepi I also had a small alabaster statuette featuring the Horus falcon. This is similar to Khafre's Horus statue that we covered earlier, but instead of enfolding the king's head in protective wings, the bird stands aloof on the back of the throne.

Starting in the 6th dynasty rich Egyptians outside the capital began to have spells painted on the insides of their wooden coffins . The Coffin Texts were closely related to the Pyramid Texts in that they shared the same aims, but they were available to non royals and they were written in the Middle Egyptian dialect. Most of the coffin texts date to the 12th dynasty. About 1200 spells have been fully documented. These spells are usually painted in vertical columns and some have illustrations beside them.

The aim of the coffin texts was to make it possible for the dead to enjoy eternity. The spells enabled the reception of offerings, and protected and guided the dead body so that it could join the sun on its daily journey. The god Osiris was more prominent here than in the Pyramid Texts. His corpse resided in a place called “the boundary of the sky”, and the Book of the Two Ways provided a map of the roads to him. The dead were so closely associated with Osiris that the god's name was inserted before their own. The idea that only kings would join the gods after death had totally disappeared from these texts.

10.3 – Pharaohs Merenre & Pepi II

Pepi I was succeeded by his son Merenre, in 2283 BC, but little is known about his reign. Merenre shared his father's fascination with Nubia and continued to explore deep into the region. He also began a process of royal consolidation, appointing Weni as the first governor of all of Upper Egypt and expanding the power of several other governors.

The Pyramid of Merenre was badly ruined. The pyramid was entered by an entrance at ground-level along its north side. A short passage, a corridor chamber and another passage with the usual three portcullises, led down into an antechamber, to the west of which was the burial chamber. The burial chamber contained a black basalt sarcophagus, which was intact when it was discovered. The mummy that was discovered inside this sarcophagus is held by some to have been Merenre I himself, although it most likely belongs to an 18th Dynasty intrusive burial. This mummy would be the oldest known complete royal mummy, if it is actually him. The niche for the canopic chest was sunk into the floor.

As was usual for a 6th Dynasty pyramid, Merenre I's pyramid was inscribed with Pyramid Texts. In the choice and distribution of these texts, Merenre's pyramid is very similar to Pepi I's, even copying the star ceiling. Only little remains of the mortuary temple and other buildings associated with the pyramid of this short-reigning king. The kingship passed on to Merenre's 6-year-old son, Pepi II.

Manetho claims that Pepi II came to the throne around 2278 BC, at the age of 6, and lived to be 100. This could easily be an exaggeration, but records of his reign point to a rule of at least 65 years, similar in length to Ramesses II. His long reign was a possible reason for the Old Kingdom collapse. If he lived to be perhaps 100 years old, he might have been too feeble to properly rule Egypt. Remember that the pharaoh was the physical leader of Egypt. He was in charge of the military, the head of the army. If he did reign for 94 years, he would be the longest ruling monarch in the history of the world!

Surprisingly, Pepi II's pyramid was no larger than those of his predecessors, despite the many years in power. An interesting feature is that after the north chapel and the wall was completed, the builders tore down these structures and enlarged the base of the pyramid. A band of brickwork reaching to the height of the perimeter wall was then added to the pyramid. The purpose of this band is not known.

The burial chamber had a gabled ceiling covered by painted stars. Two of the walls consisted of large granite slabs. The sarcophagus was made of black granite and inscribed with the king's name and titles. A canopic chest was sunk in the floor. The pyramid collapsed when the limestone casing was removed sometime in antiquity. The causeway was approximately 400- meters long and led to the valley temple, that was on the shores of a lake, which is now long gone.

The alabaster statuette of young Pepi II is his most famous portrait. It is unique in that it shows him at a much smaller scale than his mother. This difference in size is atypical because the king is usually shown larger than others. His mother, Ankhesenpepi II, most likely ruled as regent in the early years of his reign.

On the walls of a tomb in Abydos, is the Story of Weni, one of the longest narrative inscriptions of this period. His autobiography records how he rose from almost obscure origins through the court hierarchy, under the first three kings of the dynasty, to become the Governor of the South. During Merenre's reign, Weni became sole arbiter in a harem conspiracy case involving Queen Weret-Imtes. “Never before had the like of me heard a secret matter of the king's harem, but His Majesty caused me to hear it.” -The Story of Weni

Bearing in mind Manetho's assertion that the previous king Teti had been assassinated, no doubt the sentence on the Queen was a capital one.

Another detailed autobiography of this time was discovered in the tomb of the noble and caravan leader, Harkhuf. The inscription details how Harkhuf made four journeys into the dangerous lands south of Aswan to collect elephant tusks, ebony, incense, and other commodities. During the 2nd year of Pepi II's reign, he captured a small pygmy while on the route to Darfur. He sent word ahead to the young pharaoh who wrote back with specific instructions that the pygmy should be inspected ten times a night as he slept to ensure no harm befell him. This expedition was evidently successful.

The Egyptian state's ability to control zones east from the Nile seems to have waned and mining expeditions to Sinai ended after Pepi II's reign. Military activity in Asia is last reported in the biography of Weni the Elder from the early 6th dynasty, and the trade contacts with ports farther north seem to have ceased. While the names of many kings of the 4th Dynasty to king Pepi II appear in Byblos, no later ones occur until the 12th Dynasty. Yet, Egypt's control over the western desert was strong in the late Old Kingdom and continued into the First Intermediate Period.

The Early Egyptian Military

Egypt's military adventures, internally and abroad, required troops. Originally the army had been made-up of local men who fought as part of their duties to the state, and, later on, to their local lords. Starting in the 6th Dynasty armies, such as Weni's expeditionary force, included mercenaries from Nubia and Libya, and these foreigners would become a permanent fixture, even when the Egyptian state reunified under the Middle Kingdom.

The Nubian soldiers seem to have fully accepted Egyptian mortuary customs, but wanted to preserve their separate identity. They used an Egyptian type of monument and adopted Egyptian styles in their representations as well as Egyptian names often times, but they depicted themselves with a darker skin color and Nubian hairdo and sometimes explicitly stated they were Nubian in the inscription.

The historical record became silent toward the end of Pepi II's reign. The central government eventually broke down and the country fell into political disorder upon the death of Pepi II. As a result, Egypt fell into chaos and the historical record disappeared. This 'dark age', called The First Intermediate Period, would be one of three similar breakdowns that Egypt would face during its 3,000 years.

Egyptologist Bob Brier points out that 'change for Egypt was always bad'. Changes made at the end of the Old Kingdom, which included solar temples, name changes to the solar god Ra, and pyramid texts in the burial chambers, signaled a decline in royal authority and a rise in status for the priests who may have begun controlling the country.

10.4 – The First Intermediate Period

The First Intermediate Period lasted 250 years which is amazing to consider since it was a dark age that we know very little about. No list of pharaohs exist for this period. Manetho describes the 7th Dynasty as '70 kings who ruled in 70 days'. This was a poetic form of symbolizing a demise of the central government.

Around 2181 BC, the seat of kingship moved South from Memphis to Herakleopolis at the entrance of the Faiyum. The Herakleopolitan kings of the 9th and 10th Dynasties saw themselves as heirs of the Old Kingdom and one was buried at Saqqara, but their powers were limited and they did not have full dominance over Middle Egypt. It was against them that a newly emerging power directed its struggles for supremacy.

Excavations at Memphis are difficult because of the high water table and extensive cultivation, and thus its a 'lost city'. Because the capital is gone, the First Intermediate Period is hard to study. From what we do have of the sources we can surmise the following:

- The 8th Dynasty comprised of 17 or so kings, possibly descended from Pepi II that claimed to govern from Memphis. Their authority was mostly limited to around the city. By this point, the Delta had been invaded by so called 'Asiatics' from the East. Specific information about this invasion is lacking.

- The City of Herakleopolis had taken control of Middle Egypt, and had founded the 9th Dynasty, which could have controlled the entire country for a while. Manetho mentions the cruelty of a 9th Dynasty king, named Achtoes, whom the gods of Egypt kill.

To the South of the regions where political power had been concentrated since Early Dynastic times developed a new center that would dominate Egypt for many centuries: Thebes. The population of two previously minor towns on the east Bank of the Nile merged under the leadership of an overseer of priests called Intef. Around 2134 BC, he started a rival dynasty to the one at Herakleopolis, which we now call the 11th Dynasty. The basis for his power is unknown, but he had the ability to command the constructions of a huge Saff tomb across the river. Intef initiated a sequence of stable and lengthy rules that led to a pacification of the South. From this base his successors started to push north, annexing territories the rulers of Herakleopolis claimed as their own.

The Thebans restored the prestige of the king. Officials acknowledged their dependence on him and the king again was recognized as the sponsor of temple building throughout the territory. Already the second king of the dynasty, Wahankh Intef II, had taken the title of King of Upper and Lower Egypt, which did not mean that he controlled both the valley and the Delta, but revealed his aspirations clearly.

The records are still vague, but by this time, Egypt was divided: The 10th Dynasty from Herakleopolis ruling the North, while the new rival family, established the 11th Dynasty, ruling the South from Thebes. This was a war torn period of time. These two hostile powers continued to grow in strength which resulted in frequent clashes along the border (mostly north of Abydos).

There is a minor view into this period from a famous Middle Kingdom story, called the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant. This peasant is robbed of his goods by a landowner while on his way to the market and decides to take his case before the king. 'In the reign of his late Majesty King Nebkaure', the peasant presents his case to the king who is entranced by the peasant's eloquent speech, making him present the case over and over again while he enjoys listening to him.

10.5 – The Early 11th Dynasty

The 11th Dynasty began with a series of kings who all called themselves Intef, which makes the chronology a bit confusing. Ruling from Thebes, these Theban princes constantly fought their northern rival with each gaining more success until the rise of Mentuhotep II, who finally unified the country. The prominent deity at this time in Thebes was the god Montu, the god of war. His influence would grow until being replaced at the beginning of the next dynasty.

Three Intefs were buried near the future Valley of the Kings in what are called saff tombs. Saff is the Arabic word for 'row', which describes their tombs' appearance. Their row of doorways were lined up high on the mountains, to avoid tomb robbing, which was most likely prevalent during this Intermediate Period. Egyptian names are very important and their meaning sometimes provides a look into history when the main sources are missing.

Intef Seher-towi begins the dynasty. His name means 'makes peace in the two lands'. Although he wrote his name in a cartouche, his power was still limited.

Intef Wahankh is the second Intef. Remember from episode 3 that Ankh mean life. His name Wa-ankh means 'established in life'. An interesting side note with this king is that he was the world's first documented dog lover. An egyptologist discovered his stele in 1860 showing his five dogs, something he wanted remembered throughout time, and he even has the names of these dogs, one of which was called 'blackie'.

The Egyptians were pet lovers. This is especially apparent in their art. Tomb paintings very commonly have the nobles sitting in chairs and under these chairs are usually cats or sometimes baboons. Cats were top number one pet, but then came dogs. The Whippet is the closest descendant to the type of dog they had, called the Pharaoh's Hound; a thin, wiry dog, very similar to a small greyhound.

Intef Nakht-neb-tep-nefer is the third Intef. His name means 'the beautiful and strong champion' – nefer meaning good, beautiful, or happy which was very common with names. You'll see this again through Nefertiti and Nefertari. Nakht means mighty or victorious, neb is usually Lord and tep is front, or foremost – Nakhtneb- tep-nefer – 'the beautiful and strong champion, or lord'. Unlike the other two Intefs, we know that he really did try to unify Egypt militarily.

These Intefs were followed by the Mentuhoteps – also known as the Montuhoteps. Montu was the god of war. The name Montuhotep meant 'the war god is pleased'. Amenhotep or Amunhotep, meaning 'the god Amun is pleased', is similar in these name configurations.

10.6 – Pharaoh Mentuhotep II (2060-2010 BC)

With Mentuhotep II, the country is again united. The First Intermediate Period ends and the Middle Kingdom begins in 2055 BC. After unifying the country, Mentuhotep II spent the rest of his long life returning peace and prosperity to Egypt, which they had not experienced in over 200 years.

South of his predecessors' saff tombs, Mentuhotep constructed a large Mortuary Temple on the impressive Great Bay of Cliffs at Deir el-Bahari. The choice of this location was certainly related to the Theban origin of the 11th Dynasty: Mentuhotep's predecessors on the Theban throne were all buried close-by in saff tombs. Furthermore, Mentuhotep may have chosen Deir el-Bahri because it was aligned with the temple of Karnak, on the other side of Nile. In particular, the statue of Amun was brought annually to Deir el-Bahri during the Beautiful Festival of the Valley, something which the king may have perceived as beneficial to this funerary cult

This temple-tomb was innovative and consisted of a great stepped podium with square-cut pillars around it. At the rear of the base of the cliffs was a terrace with a Hypostyle Hall. The main entrance of this complex became a deep tunnel that led to a chamber beneath the temple which held an impressive seated stone statue of the king. The mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II has been excavated many times. In the late nineteenth century, Swiss Egyptologist Edouard Naville found three princesses beneath the paving stones in the mortuary temple. These 'Ladies of the Harem of Mentuhotep' were poorly mummified. One of these burials contained a young girl in a wooden coffin.

In the Middle Kingdom, people were placed on their sides in these wooden coffins. Two eyes were painted on the coffin. On their side, facing west, these eyes allowed them to see so they knew where they were going during their journey to the afterlife. Often the insides of the coffins were inscribed with spells to help them get to the next world. You can tell the kingdom from the type of coffin. The Middle Kingdom coffins were all wooden boxes with simple bands of hieroglyphs. The New Kingdom developed the coffins that were shaped like a mummy, much like King Tut's coffins.

The development of the Coffin Texts began with Pharaoh Unas when he began the pyramid texts – the spells written on the walls of the burial chamber that was continued throughout the 6th Dynasty. A commoner would never have seen these spells because the pyramids were sealed. But during the First Intermediate Period, these pyramids were robbed. All the pyramids created up to this point were robbed during the First Intermediate Period: Sneferu's pyramids, the Great Pyramid of Giza, and the 5th and 6th Dynasty tombs. Here the commoners were now observing these spells in the burial chambers and realized that they helped you to resurrect. As a result, these were copied, and since they did not have pyramids themselves, the commoners began writing the spells into their own coffins. These 'pyramid texts' in coffins became known as 'coffin texts' which would later become part of the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom.

Mentuhotep II had wealth and was established. He had the means to create beautiful portraits and statues as seen from the Old Kingdom, however, the artistic talent seems to have been lost during the First Intermediate Period. Although these statues are successful in showing him as a powerful man, they are not well made. They lack high quality artistic craftsmanship and appear crude. The royal sculptors and studios of the past were not supported during the Intermediate Period and, as a result, the skills were momentarily lost.

Mentuhotep II's enthroned statue shows him wearing the red crown in the tight Heb-sed costume. His black color features his assimilation to Osiris – the underworld god of fertility. A second statue features him standing in his jubilee garment.

The most profound innovations of Mentuhotep II's temple were not architectural, but religious. First, it is the earliest mortuary temple where the king is not just the recipient of offerings but rather enacts ceremonies for the gods (and in this case Amun- Ra). Second, the temple identifies the king with Osiris, a local Theban god which grew in importance from the 11th Dynasty onward. The decoration and royal statuary of the temple emphasizes the Osirian aspects of the dead ruler, an ideology apparent in the statuary of many later pharaohs.

One of the first war cemeteries was discovered by Winlock in the 1920s, near Mentuhotep's temple, which contained the bodies of over 60 soldiers killed in battle. They had almost certainly been killed in Nubia and brought back to Egypt for burial. At Asyut, two finely detailed wooden models of soldiers were found in the tomb of Mesehti. They represent 40 strong detachments of Egyptian spearmen and Nubian archers. These models provide an incredible view of what the soldiers used in battle and how they dressed.

Another amazing find was the tomb of Mentuhotep II's chancellor, Meketre. The burial location was near Mentuhotep's Mortuary Temple and built into the cliff face, like most of the other nobles during this time. Although the tomb had been stripped of any valuables and damaged in antiquity, Archaeologist Herbert Winlock discovered a small concealed chamber containing 24 wooden models representing the daily life of the Egyptians. These models are some of the most valuable wooden artifacts to have ever been found, as wood is not common to survive in the humidity of the Egyptian region. The models provide significant detail about the raising and slaughtering of livestock, storage of grain, making of bread and beer, and design of boats in Middle Kingdom Egypt. The models are complete in every detail, and like the wooden models of soldiers, provide a snapshot into the lives of the Egyptians during this time.

10.7 – Pharaohs Mentuhotep III & IV

Due to the long reign of Mentuhotep II, his son and successor, Mentuhotep III, was already of old age when he came to the throne in 2010 BC. The king continued maintaining a defensive attitude toward the northern frontiers and looked to the First Cataract for trade. In Year 8 of his reign, Mentuhotep III assembled an expedition to the area of the Wadi Hammamat.

The Wadi Hammamat is a dry riverbed in Egypt's Eastern Desert that was a major mining region and ancient trade route east of the Nile. This region had been mined for fine black stone since the beginning of Egyptian civilization. In fact, the Narmer Palette, as discussed in episode 3, originates from this area. The Hammamat would eventually become a major route from Thebes to the Red Sea and then to the Silk Road that led to Asia, or to Arabia and the Horn of Africa. This 130-mile journey was the most direct route from the Nile to the Red Sea, as the Nile bends toward the coast at the western end of the Wadi.

The expedition seems to have been the first to the area for some time, since his steward, Henenu, took 3,000 soldiers with him, and that was only after local rebels had been cleared from the road by other troops. Henenu sank a total of 12 wells enroute and recorded a long inscription of this successful expedition into the Wadi Hammamat, before returning to Egypt. After his death, Mentuhotep III was most likely buried in the cliffs to the south of his father's Great Tomb at Dier el-Bahari. Little remains there except for a causeway that apparently ends at a sloping passage going into the rock.

Mentuhotep IV, who succeeded the throne in 1997 BC, is ignored in both the Saqqara and the Abydos king lists. Not much is known about the king. He sends his vizier and Governor of the South, Amenemhet, to the Wadi in search of a fine block of stone suitable for the lid of his sarcophagus. Taking 10,000 soldiers with him, Amenemhet returned it to Thebes. Unfortunately neither the tomb nor sarcophagus of Mentuhotep IV has ever been found.

The king was most likely never able to use the stone, since it seems that Amenemhet, with the backing of his 10,000 men, overthrew his master and proclaimed himself king. Amenemhet and his 12th Dynasty would take Egypt into the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom and that will be the focus of our next episode.

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